Talmudology on the Parsha: The Fast of Friday, Parshat Chukkat

במדבר 19:1

זֹאת חֻקַּת הַתּוֹרָה אֲשֶׁר־צִוָּה יְהֹוָה לֵאמֹר דַּבֵּר  אֶל־בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְיִקְחוּ אֵלֶיךָ פָרָה אֲדֻמָּה תְּמִימָה אֲשֶׁר אֵין־בָּהּ מוּם אֲשֶׁר לֹא־עָלָה עָלֶיהָ עֹל׃

This is the ritual law that God has commanded: Instruct the Israelite people to bring you a red cow without blemish, in which there is no defect and on which no yoke has been laid.

The word חקת is normally translated as “ritual law” or “statute.” But the Aramiac translation of the Torah called Targum Onkelos (composed between about the years 80-120 CE) translated the work using a different word: גזירה, decree.

דָּא גְּזֵרַת אוֹרַיְתָא

This is a decree of the Torah

Over the lachrymose periods of Jewish history, a play on words connected this religious decree of the Torah with another: to burn it.

“On Monday, June 25, 1240 the first public trial against the Talmud and its most popular commentary, that by Rashi, was opened in the royal court in Paris in the presence of many church-dignitaries and noblemen. The Queen Mother Blanche who was in an advanced stage of pregnancy presided. The prosecutor was the convert Donin, the defendant-the Talmud, and its defenders four French Rabbis: Rabbi Yechiel of Paris, Judah ben David of Melun, Samuel ben Solomon of Chateau Thierry and Moses of Coucy.”

— Judah M. Rosenthal. The Talmud on Trial: The Disputation at Paris in the Year 1240. The Jewish Quarterly Review 1956. 47(1), 58–76.

The Burning of the Talmud in 1244, (or maybe 1242, or 1240)

In 1240 Rabbi Yechiel of Paris (the author of many tosafot, and the teacher of the Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg) was forced to defend the Talmud from accusations that togther with Rashi’s commentary, it contained derogatory remarks about Jesus of Nazareth (De blasphemiis humanitatis Xristi). Yechiel was arguing against Nicholas Donin, a Jew who had converted to Christianity, and who was supported by a team of former Jews. On Friday June 6, 1242 the final verdict was delivered. (As Solomon Grayzel noted many decades ago “the exact year of this event is variously given in the sources. The three years suggested are 1240, 1242, and 1244. Graetz after a long discussion of the subject comes to the conclusion that 1242 is the correct date.” So let’s go with that.) On Friday July 13, 1242, wagonloads of the handwritten Talmud were burned in Paris. That was the day before Parshat Chukat was read in shul.

The FAst of Friday, Parshat Chukkat

One contemporary was Rabbi Zedekiah ben Abraham Anaw, the author of the halakhic compendium called Shibbolei Haleket.

שבולי הלקט 263

ועל שאנו עסוקין בהלכות תענית ובענין שריפת התורה כתבנו זה לזכר על מה שאירע בימינו על רוב עונותינו אשר גרמו לנו ונשרפה תורת אלהינו בשנת חמשת אלפים וב' שנים לבריאת עולם ביום ששי פרשת וזאת חקת התורה כעשרים וארבעה קרונות מלאים ספרי תלמוד והלכות והגדות נשרפו בצרפת כאשר שמענו לשמע אוזן וגם מן הרבנים שהיו שם שמענו שעשו שאילת חלום לדעת אם גזירה היא מאת הבורא והשיבו להם ודא גזירת אוריתא ופירושו ביום ו' זאת חקת התורה היא הגזירה ומאותו היום ואילך קבעוהו היחידים עליהם להתענות בו בכל שנה ושנה ביום ששי של פרשת זאת חקת התורה ולא קבעוהו לימי החודש תהא אפרה עלינו לכפרה (כאשה) [כעולה] על מוקדה וערבה לבני יהודה כמנחתה הקריבה כהילכתה

…Let us remember what happened on account of our sins which caused God’s Torah to be burned in the year 5002, on the Friday of parshat Chukkat. Some twenty-four waggons full of copies of the Talmud and halakhic and aggadic works were burned in France…The rabbis who were there reported that they asked in a dream if this was indeed God’s decree (gezerah me’et haboreh). And one of the rabbis there answered “ודא גזירת אוריתא” - this is the decree of the Torah…

From then on the Jews would fast each and every Friday before the reading of parshat Chukkat. It was not fixed as a calendar date, [but the date is flexible, and depends on when Phukkat is read]

This fast is also recorded in by Rabbi Avraham Gombiner (c. 1635-1682) in his commentary on Shulkah Arukh called Magen Avraham:

מגן אברהם אורח חיים תקפ, ס’ק ט׳

כתב התניא ביום הששי פ' חקת נהגו יחידים להתענו' שבאותו היום נשרפו כ' קרונות מלאים ספרים בצרפת ולא קבעו אותו בימי החדש מפני שמתוך שאלת חלום נודע להם שיום הפרשה גורם גזיר' התורה זאת חקת התורה מתרגמי' דא גזירת אורייתא, וגם בשנת ת"ח נחרבו שני קהילו' גדולות באותו היום כמ"ש בסליחו' שחבר בעל השפתי כהן

We find it mentioned in the work Tanya Rabatia [an early anonymous Italian halakhic compendium] that on the Friday of Parshat Chukkat the Jews have a custom to fast, for on that day twenty cartloads of books were burned in France. The fast was not fixed to a certain date because it was made known through a dream that the day of the burning was to occur on “The day of the זאת חקת התורה which is translated [in Onkelos] as דא גזירת אורייתא - “this is the decree of the Torah”.

And in Turkey, the Jews had a custom to stay inside on the Friday of Parshat Chukkat:

חיים פלאגי, מועד לכל חי, סימן ט, ד

וכבאר היטב סימן תק״ם כתב וזה לשונו, כתב התניא כיום השישי פרשת חוקת נהגו היחידים להתענות שבאותו יום נשרפו עשרים קרונות מלאים טסרים כעדפת ולא קבעו אותו מפני החדש מפני שכתוך שאלת חלום נודע להם שיום הפרשה גורם גזירות התורה, זאת חוקת התודה מתדגמינן דא גזירת אורייתא, גם כשנת ת״ח נחרכו שתי קהילות כאותו יום, עכ״ל, ובעירנו אזמיר יע״א, נהירנא מכד הוינא טליא דהיו כמה אנשים סוחרים דהיו נזהרים שלא לצאת אפילו לשוק לעסקיהם כערב שבת חוקת, ומה שהיה להם לעשות כערב שכת היו עושים ומתקנים מיום חמישי, והן עוד היום רבים נזהרים שלא לילך מעיר לכפר כיום הזה, וה׳ שומר את עמו ישראל ובכל מקום ובכל זמן שלא תאונה שום רעה אמן כן יהי רצון

 …In our ciry of Izmir where the young would stroll, there were a number of merchants who were careful not to leave their homes, even to go to the market for business on the Friday of Parshat Chukkat. Whatever they needed to do they did on Thursday. And there were many others who did not leave the city for the villages on that day. My God guard his people Israel in all places and at all times, so that no evil will happen to them, Amen.

This Friday, another sort of fast. Or not

Several days after I finished a draft of this post, Agudath Israel of America issued a Kol Korei. Its rabbinc leadership “…call upon all holy congregations of Klal Yisroel to designate this Friday of the week of Parshas Chukas as a day of great and bitter outcry regarding this decree of the Torah.” And what might that decree be?

Now, we come to matters pertaining to our present time, as in this generation numerous troubles and severe decrees have arisen against the Am Hashem in general and specifically targeting the Torah and its scholars, and the young children learning Torah, both in Eretz Yisroel and in the Diaspora. Policy-makers, with malicious intent, aim to disrupt the sanctity of Torah scholars, requiring the students of our holy yeshivos to abandon their study benches in the beis medrash and enlist in the military. They scheme with various tricks, and their hand is still outstretched, poised to persist. Moreover, decrees are being issued against young children learning Torah, both in Eretz Yisroel and in the Diaspora. All of this is reminiscent of the decree of burning the Torah.

“All of this is reminiscent of the decree of burning the Torah”? In what universe is calling on all of Israel’s citizens to share the responsibility of defending the country “reminiscent of the decree of burning the Torah”? And just what decrees are “being issued against young children learning Torah, both in Eretz Yisroel and in the Diaspora.” Anyone?

The leadership of this organization (one of whose members believes that the polio vaccine is a hoax,) have reached a new low. In his book, the late Princeton philosopher Harry Frankfurt described those whose utterances are a greater enemy of the truth than liars are. Liars at least acknowledge that the truth matters. I have two copies of his book, so let me know if you’d like to borrow one.

Moetzes Gedolei HaTorah of America, Kol Korei released July 9, 2024.

Here’s an idea for Agudath Israel of America. Tomorrow, on Friday of Parshat Chukkat, gather together and pray for the victory of our soldiers, the safety of our people, and the release of the hostages. And then watch this clip of what is possible when those who care about studying Torah combine it with military service. Watch. And learn.

Bava Basra 16b ~ Here Comes the Sun

This post is for the page of Talmud to be studied tomorrow, Thursday July 11th.

בבא בתרא טז, ב 

רבי שמעון בן יוחי אומר אבן טובה היתה תלויה בצוארו של אברהם אבינו שכל חולה הרואה אותו מיד מתרפא ובשעה שנפטר אברהם אבינו מן העולם תלאה הקדוש ברוך הוא בגלגל חמה אמר אביי היינו דאמרי אינשי אידלי יומא אידלי קצירא

Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai said: there was a precious stone that hung from the neck of Abraham our forefather. Any sick person who looked at it was instantly cured.  When Abraham our forefather died, the Holy One, Blessed be He, hung this stone in the orb of the sun. Abaye said, this is what is meant by the popular saying "when the sun is lifted, sickness is lifted"

Abaye, the great Babylonian sage of the fourth century, commented on a statement made Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai about two centuries earlier, and suggested that sunlight helps heal.  This was not the only time Abaye opined about the health benefits of sunlight. We came across another example when we studied Nedarim: 

נדרים  ח, ב

שמש צדקה ומרפא אמר אביי ש"מ חרגא דיומא מסי ופליגא דר"ש בן לקיש דאמר אין גיהנם לעולם הבא אלא הקב"ה מוציא חמה מנרתיקה צדיקים מתרפאין בה ורשעים נידונין בה

“The sun of righteousness, with healing in its rays” (Malachi 3:20)...Abaye said: “We learn from here that the dust of the sun heals”…Rabbi Shimon ben Gamliel said, “there is no hell in the world to come. Rather God takes the sun out of its canopy; the righteous are healed by it and the wicked are punished by it” (Nedarim 8b.)

A HISTORY OF HELIOTHERAPY

In 1903, the Nobel prize for Medicine was awarded to a Dane named Niels Finsen. Finsen had invented a focusable carbon-arc torch to treat – and cure – patients with lupus vulgaris, a painful skin infection caused by tuberculosis.  While this was the start of the modern medical use of phototherapy, using the sun as a source of healing is much, much older. Older even than the Talmud, which mentions it in today’s daf. 

“The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1903 was awarded to Niels Ryberg Finsen “in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases...with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science”

Perhaps the earliest reference to heliotherapy – that is, using sunlight to heal - is found in Egyptian papyrus records from over 3,500 years ago, which record using the sun, together with ingesting a local weed, to treat skin conditions. The active ingredients of that weed, Ammi majus, were isolated in 1947. These ingredients, together with heliotherapy, were used in the first clinical trials to treat vitiligo, which were conducted, rather fittingly, in Egypt.  Further work determined that it was only a narrow part of the sun’s spectrum that was needed to treat vitiligo, psoriasis, and other skin conditions, and so lamps were developed that produced only narrow band ultraviolet light (UVB). These UVB lamps are now a mainstay of treatment for psoriasis.

“For most white people, a half-hour in the summer sun in a bathing suit can initiate the release of 50,000 IU (1.25 mg) vitamin D into the circulation within 24 hours of exposure”

— — Environmental Health Perspectives 2008:116;4. A162

SUNLIGHT FOR HEALTHY BONES

But ultraviolet light – UVB – can also be extremely dangerous. Too much exposure to sunlight will cause skin cancer, as the light produces molecules that directly damage DNA. Here is the great paradox of sunlight – too much of it will burn and can kill – but get the dose right and it is not only curative, but essential for healthy living. Sunlight is needed to produce vitamin D in the skin, and vitamin D is needed to produce healthy bones. Without it, you will develop rickets, a skeletal deformity that is characterized by bowed legs. 

Typical presentation of 2 children with rickets. The child in the middle is normal; the children on both sides have severe muscle weakness and bone deformities, including bowed legs (right) and knock knees (left). From Holick M. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80(suppl):1678S–88S.

SUNLIGHT FOR A HEALTHY IMMUNE SYSTEM

The sun’s light has been shown to have effect the immune system, although many of these effects are only poorly understood. 

When some nerve fibres are exposed to sunlight, they release a chemical called neuropeptide substance P. This chemical seems to produce local immune suppression.  Exposure to the ultraviolet wavelengths in sunlight can change the regulation of T cells in the body which can also modulate autoimmune diseases.

SUNLIGHT TO TREAT MELANOMA?

While sunlight can cause skin cancer, it has been shown to release a hormone called alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone. This hormone appears to limit the damage to DNA damage from sunlight and so may actually reduce the risk of melanoma (but don't try this as a treatment yet. It's certainly not ready for prime time.)

SUNLIGHT FOR YOUR MOOD

Then there’s sunlight for your mood. Seasonal affective disorder – SAD – is caused by a lack of exposure to sunlight, which most affects those living in the northern latitudes in the winter.  SAD was first described in 1984 by Norman Rosenthal working at the National Institute of Mental Health but why it happens is still something of a mystery.  Rosenthal went on to write several best selling books on SAD and how to beat it. The answer appears to be something to do with sitting in front of a lamp that mimics sunlight (but the evidence that this works is still controversial).

 SUNLIGHT FOR BABIES WITH JAUNDICE

Sunlight is also a great treatment for babies with neonatal jaundice. This condition is very common and is caused when the baby breaks down the fetal hemoglobin with which it was born. A product of that breakdown is bilirubin, and if this is allowed to build up in the tissues it can cause lethargy, difficultly feeding, and in rare and extreme cases, brain damage. However, sunlight (or more precisely, the blue band of the spectrum at 459nm)  breaks down this dangerous bilirubin molecule into a harmless one called biliverdin.  So the best treatment for a newborn baby with mild jaundice is to put them out in the sun.  (Failing that, or if the degree of jaundice is not mild, you can consider phototherapy in the hospital.) 

The absorbance spectrum of bilirubin bound to human serum albumin (white line) is shown superimposed on the spectrum of visible light. Clearly, blue light is most effective for phototherapy, but because the transmittance of skin increases with increasing wavelength, the best wavelengths to use are probably in the range of 460 to 490 nm. Term and near-term infants should be treated in a bassinet, not an incubator, to allow the light source to be brought to within 10 to 15 cm of the infant (except when halogen or tungsten lights are used), increasing irradiance and efficacy. For intensive phototherapy, an auxiliary light source (fiber-optic pad, light-emitting diode [LED] mattress, or special blue fluorescent tubes) can be placed below the infant or bassinet. If the infant is in an incubator, the light rays should be perpendicular to the surface of the incubator in order to minimize loss of efficacy due to reflectance. From Maisels and McDonagh. Phototherapy for Neonatal Jaundice. New England Journal of Medicine 2008.358;920-928.

SUNLIGHT FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES

 We don't treat infectious diseases with sunlight any more. But it wasn't always that way. Less than eighty years ago sunlight was recommended as a therapy for some patients with tuberculosis. The authors, writing in the journal Diseases of the Chest were cautious:

Even in those cases where the sun can be of great value, it is in no sense a specific cure for any manifestation of tuberculosis. Rest, good food, and fresh air, are still the fundamentals in treating all forms of the disease; and the sun, where it should be used, is only a valuable adjutant...Heliotherapy is not indicated in all cases of tuberculosis. The majority of patients with this disease should never use it...It is not a sure cure for any type of tuberculosis, but is often, especially in some of the extrapulmonary cases, a very valuable—or even necessary—aid.

In today's daf, Abaye once again noted that the sun can heal. His insight were more correct than he could ever have guessed.  

“Bright light therapy and the broader realm of chronotherapy remain underappreciated and underutilized, despite their empirical support. Efficacy extends beyond seasonal affective disorder and includes nonseasonal depression and sleep disorders, with emerging evidence for a role in treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, delirium, and dementia.”

— — Schwartz and Olds. The Psychiatry of Light. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 2015. 23 (3); 188.S

Bava Basra 14a ~The value of Pi in the Talmud

Today we discuss maths (as it is called in the UK, Ireland and Australia,) or math (as it is called in the US and Canada). We will focus on that most magical of numbers, pi, also known as π. On today’s page of Talmud we find this theorem:

תלמוד בבלי מסכת בבא בתרא יד, א

כֹּל שֶׁיֵּשׁ בְּהֶקֵּיפוֹ שְׁלֹשָׁה טְפָחִים

Elsewhere, the Talmud determined the that value of π is 3 from a verse in the Book of Kings:

מלכים א פרק ז פסוק כג 

ויעש את הים מוצק עשר באמה משפתו עד שפתו עגל סביב וחמש באמה קומתו וקוה שלשים באמה יסב אתו סביב 

And he made a molten sea, ten amot from one brim to the other: it was round, and its height was five amot, and a circumference of thirty amot circled it.

 The Talmud in Eruvin uses this verse to teach a general mathematical principle:

עירובין דף יד עמוד א

כל שיש בהיקפו שלשה טפחים יש בו רחב טפח. מנא הני מילי? - אמר רבי יוחנן, אמר קרא : ויעש את הים מוצק עשר באמה משפתו עד שפתו עגל סביב וחמש באמה קומתו וקו שלשים באמה יסב אתו סביב 

"Whatever circle has a circumference of three tefachim must have a diameter of one tefach."  

So one of the vessels in the Temple of Solomon was ten amot in diameter and 30 amot in circumference. Since π is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter (π=C/d), π in the Book of Kings is 30/10=3. Three - no more and no less.

But PI is more than three

However, this value of π =3 is not accurate. It deviates from the true value of π (3.1415...) by about 5%. Tosafot in Eruvin is bothered by this too.

תוספות, עירובין יד א

והאיכא משהו. משמע שהחשבון מצומצם וכן בפ"ק דב"ב (ד' יד:) גבי שני טפחים שנשתיירו בארון ששם ספר תורה מונח שהיא בהיקפה ששה טפחים ופריך כיון דלאמצעיתו נגלל נפיש ליה משני טפחים וכן בתר הכי דמשני בספר דעזרה לתחלתו נגלל ופריך אכתי תרי בתרי היכי יתיב משמע דמצומצם לגמרי וקשיא דאין החשבון מדוקדק לפי חכמי המדות

Tosafot opens the objection with these words: “But [pi] is a little more [than 3]. Which means that the value [of pi] is rounded down” Tosafot can't find a good answer to this obvious problem, and concludes "this is difficult, because the result [that pi=3] is not precise, as demonstrated by those who understand geometry." 

PI IN THE RAMBAM

In his commentary on the Mishnah on which today’s discussion is based, (Eruvin 1:5) Maimonides makes the following observation:

פירוש המשנה לרמב"ם מסכת עירובין פרק א משנה ה 

צריך אתה לדעת שיחס קוטר העיגול להקפו בלתי ידוע, ואי אפשר לדבר עליו לעולם בדיוק, ואין זה חסרון ידיעה מצדנו כמו שחושבים הסכלים, אלא שדבר זה מצד טבעו בלתי נודע ואין במציאותו שיודע. אבל אפשר לשערו בקירוב, וכבר עשו מומחי המהנדסים בזה חבורים, כלומר לידיעת יחס הקוטר להקיפו בקירוב ואופני ההוכחה עליו. והקירוב שמשתמשים בו אנשי המדע הוא יחס אחד לשלשה ושביעית, שכל עיגול שקוטרו אמה אחת הרי יש בהקיפו שלש אמות ושביעית אמה בקירוב. וכיון שזה לא יושג לגמרי אלא בקירוב תפשו הם בחשבון גדול ואמרו כל שיש בהקיפו שלשה טפחים יש בו רוחב טפח, והסתפקו בזה בכל המדידות שהוצרכו להן בכל התורה

...The ratio of the diameter to the circumference of a circle is not known and will never be known precisely. This is not due to a lack on our part (as some fools think), but this number [pi] cannot be known because of its nature, and it is not in our ability to ever know it precisely. But it may be approximated ...to three and one-seventh. So any circle with a diameter of one has a circumference of approximately three and one-seventh. But because this ratio is not precise and is only an approximation, they [the rabbis of the Mishnah and Talmud] used a more general value and said that any circle with a circumference of three has a diameter of one, and they used this value in all their Torah calculations.

Is the Value of Pi hidden in the Bible?

There are lots of papers on the value of pi in the the Bible. Many of them mention an observation that seems to have been incorrectly attributed to the Vilna Gaon.  The verse we cited from מלאכים א׳ spells the word for line as קוה, but it is pronounced as though it were written קו.  (In דברי הימים ב׳ (II Chronicles 4:2) the identical verse spells the word for line as קו.)  The ratio of the numerical value (gematria) of the written word (כתיב) to the pronounced word (קרי) is 111/106.  Let's have the French mathematician Shlomo Belga pick up the story - in his paper (first published in the 1991 Proceedings of the 17th Canadian Congress of History and Philosophy of Mathematics, and recently updated), he gets rather excited about the whole gematria thing:

A mathematician called Andrew Simoson also addresses this large tub that is described in מלאכים א׳ and is often called Solomon's Sea. He doesn't buy the gematria, and wrote about it in The College Mathematics Journal.

A natural question with respect to this method is, why add, divide, and multiply the letters of the words? Perhaps an even more basic question is, why all the mystery in the first place? Furthermore, H. W. Guggenheimer, in his Mathematical Reviews...seriously doubts that the use of letters as numerals predates Alexandrian times; or if such is the case, the chronicler did not know the key. Moreover, even if this remarkable approximation to pi is more than coincidence, this explanation does not resolve the obvious measurement discrepancy - the 30-cubit circumference and the 10-cubit diameter. Finally, Deakin points out that if the deity truly is at work in this phenomenon of scripture revealing an accurate approximation of pi... God would most surely have selected 355/113...as representative of pi...

Still, what stuck Simoson was that "...the chroniclers somehow decided that the diameter and girth measurements of Solomon's Sea were sufficiently striking to include in their narrative." (If you'd like another paper to read on this subject,  try this one, published in B'Or Ha'Torah - the journal of "Science, Art & Modern Life in the Light of the Torah." You're welcome.)

Did the rabbis of the Talmud get π wrong?

So what are we to make of all this? Did the rabbis of the Talmud get π wrong, or were they just approximating π for ease of use?  After considering evidence from elsewhere in the Mishnah (Ohalot 12:6 - I'll spare you the details), Judah Landa, in his book Torah and Science, has this to say:

We can only conclude that the rabbis of the Mishnah and Talmud, who lived about 2,000 years ago, believed that the value of pi was truly three. They did not use three merely for simplicity’s sake, nor did they think of three as an approximation for pi. On the other hand, rabbis who lived much later, such as the Rambam and Tosafot (who lived about 900 years ago), seem to be acutely aware of the gross innacuracies that results from using three for pi. Mathematicians have known that pi is greater than three for thousands of years. Archimedes, who lived about 2,200 years ago, narrowed the value of pi down to between 3 10/70 and 3 10/71 ! (Judah Landa. Torah and Science. Ktav Publishing House 1991. p.23.)

Still, don't be too hard on the rabbis of the Talmud. The rule that the circumference of an object is three times its diameter is pretty close to being correct, and is usually a good enough approximation. But it is not accurate, and never will be.

Bava Basra 12b ~ Prophecy and Mental Illness

בבא בתרא יב, ב 

א"ר יוחנן מיום שחרב בית המקדש ניטלה נבואה מן הנביאים וניתנה לשוטים ולתינוקות

Rabbi Yochanan said: "After the destruction of the Holy Temple the power of prophecy was taken from the prophets and given to the mentally ill and to children. 

A long time ago I saw a patient in the emergency department who was brought in by ambulance after a worried relative called about his odd behavior. The patient had long been hearing voices. In his apartment the medics had found a little clay model of Jerusalem which the voices had told him to besiege. He told the medics that the voices had told him to lay on his right side for exactly three hundred and ninety days, which he had done.  He survived by eating through a store of barley, beans and lentils which those same voices had told him to prepare. The voices also told him to bake bread over a fire that burned human excrement, but the patient had protested, and the voices agreed to let him burn animal dung instead.  

In The Madhouse — Plate 8. From A Rake's Progress, William Hogarth, 1734.

Actually I made that up. Although I've treated hundreds of acutely schizophrenic, delusional or manic patients as an ER doctor, I have never treated a person like the one I just described.  But there was a person who did follow the voice in his head that told him to do all these things -the clay models, the laying on one side for over a year, the animal dung to bake bread.  All of it. His name was Ezekiel, and he was a prophet in our Bible.

“You also, son of man, take a brick and lay it before you and inscribe a city on it, even Jerusalem. Then lay siege against it, and build a fort against it, and build a mound against it; set camps and place battering rams against it all around. Moreover take for yourself an iron plate and set it up for a wall of iron between you and the city. And set your face against it so that it is besieged, and lay siege against it. This shall be a sign to the house of Israel. As for you, lie down on your left side and lay the iniquity of the house of Israel upon it. According to the number of the days that you lie on it, you shall bear their iniquity. For I have laid upon you the years of their iniquity according to the number of the days, three hundred and ninety days. So you shall bear the iniquity of the house of Israel. When you have accomplished them, lie again on your right side, and you shall bear the iniquity of the house of Judah forty days. I have appointed you each day for a year. Therefore you shall set your face toward the siege of Jerusalem, and your arm shall be uncovered, and you shall prophesy against it. I will lay bands upon you, and you shall not turn yourself from one side to another until you have ended the days of your siege. Also take for yourself wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and spelt, and put them in one vessel and make bread. According to the number of the days that you lie on your side, three hundred and ninety days, you shall eat it. ...You shall eat it as barley cake, having baked it in their sight with dung that comes out of man.... Then I said, “Ah, Lord God! My soul has not been defiled. For from my youth up even until now I have not eaten of that which dies of itself, or is torn in pieces, nor has abominable meat come into my mouth. Then He said to me, “I have given you cow dung instead of man’s dung over which you shall prepare your bread.””

— Ezekiel 4:1-15

In today's page of Talmud, Rabbi Yochanan declares not that prophecy is dead, but that the kind of things once said by the prophets of the Bible will henceforth be said by those with mental illness (שוטים) and children.  Rabbi Yochanan may have been the first to see the overlap of mental illness and the kinds of things once said by prophets of the Bible, but today psychiatrists and others involved in the care of the mentally ill have noted this overlap too.

Abraham and Moses on the Psychiatrist's Couch

In 2012, three psychiatrists from the Harvard  Medical School asked a simple question: How does a psychiatrist today help a patient to understand that their psychotic symptoms are not caused by supernatural visitations, "when our civilization recognizes similar phenomena in revered religious figures?" So the psychiatrists set off to examine the way in which revelation of the divine was described in the Bible, "with the intent of promoting scholarly dialogue about the rational limits of human experience." All this was to "educate persons living with mental illness, healthcare providers, and the general public that persons with psychotic symptoms may have had a considerable influence on the development of Western civilization."

They analyzed four religious figures, including two from our tradition, from a behavioral, neurologic, and neuropsychiatric perspective. They found that, based on the text of the Bible, Abraham had no affective, neurological or medical conditions, and since he showed no evidence of disorganization, they doubted that Abraham had classic schizophrenia too.  But they raised the possibility of his having paranoid schizophrenia. This is a subtype of schizophrenia "that tends to manifest little or no disorganization, has preserved functional affect, and is associated with better occupational and social functioning." The psychiatrists based this diagnosis on the voices Abraham kept hearing, and "a very Abraham-centered worldview of dispensing universal blessings and curses based on one’s interactions with Abraham." Moses had "auditory and visual hallucinations of a grandiose nature with delusional thought content." He also exhibited "hyperreligiosity, grandiosity, delusions, paranoia, referential thinking, and phobia (about people viewing his face)." They were not certain though, if Moses displayed symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia, or if instead, he may have had a bipolar disorder.  Jesus also displayed auditory and visual hallucinations, "delusions, referential thinking, paranoid-type thought content, and hyperreligiosity"(!) The Harvard psychiatrists also note that the lifetime risk of suicide in schizophrenia is 5-10%, and that Jesus "appears to have deliberately placed himself in circumstances wherein he anticipated his execution." Finally Paul is analyzed. He seems to have had a large number of  auditory and visual perceptual experiences "that resemble grandiose hallucinations with delusional thought content." They reject the suggestion that he suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy, and they note that Paul wrote a great deal. This kind of productive writing, they claim, "tends to be more strongly associated with mood disorders than psychosis or epilepsy. This is persuasive toward Paul having a mood disorder, rather than schizophrenia or epilepsy."

Murray, E. Cunningham M. Price B . The Role of Psychotic Disorders in Religious History Considered. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2012; 24:410–426

The point of all this analysis was not to test the the faith of those who believe in the prophetic abilities of Abraham, Moses, Jesus or Paul. Rather, it was to emphasize how those with what we today would describe as the florid symptoms of mental illness are revered as religious teachers. And one more thing.  They claimed not to have any disrespect for those with religious beliefs towards any of these four figures.

Discussion about a potential role for the supernatural is outside the scope of our article and is reserved for the communities of faithful, religious scholars, and theologians, with one exception. It is our opinion that a neuropsychiatric accounting of behavior need not be viewed as excluding a role for the supernatural. Herein, neuropsychiatric mechanisms have been proposed through which behaviors and actions might be understood. For those who believe in omnipotent and omniscient supernatural forces, this should pose no obstacle, but might rather serve as a mechanistic explanation of how events may have happened. No disrespect is intended toward anyone’s beliefs or these venerable figures.

Nocturnal Hallucinations in Israeli Ultra-Orthodox Jews

Since Rabbi Yochanan described prophecy as being given to those with mental illness, it might be worth looking at the content of some hallucinations in the Jewish mentally ill.  Is there anything in their hallucinations that we could perhaps interpret as prophecy? Let's turn to a helpful paper published in 2001, which described the nocturnal hallucinations in 122 ultra-orthodox Jewish Israeli men. The authors were two psychiatrists who noted that this symptom of nocturnal hallucinations only seemed to affect male members of the ultra-orthodox population.  The group who experienced these nocturnal hallucinations were younger than other patients with symptoms of mental illness, "and their visit was more often associated with a request for a psychiatric evaluation before receiving an exemption from compulsory army service." But let's put that rather disquieting fact aside, and move on. The majority of the hallucinations were frightening, and included figures of the sort that "may appear among the fears of ultra-orthodox men," including (and I'm not making this up) "policemen, soldiers [and] Sephardi men." 

From Greenberg D. Brome, D.  Nocturnal Hallucinations in Ultra-orthodox Jewish Israeli Men. Psychiatry 2001. 64 (1); 81-90.

Now you might be thinking that this group included a fair number of malingerers who were keen to avoid military service. The psychiatrists considered that possibility too, but noted that about 45% of the men came for more than one visit, and about 11% did not not request a recommendation letter for the army.  So they concluded that "the night hallucinations are a real clinical and culturally determined phenomenon, which in a minority of cases may have been misused and presented for purposes of gaining exemption from army service."  In any event, most ended up with a diagnosis of "subnormality and/or psychosis," with a generally good prognosis. But there is nothing that appears to be particularly prophetic in the thoughts of this group of mentally ill Jewish men.

“We suggest that some of civilization’s most significant religious figures may have had psychotic symptoms that contributed inspiration for their revelations. It is hoped that this analysis will engender scholarly dialogue about the rational limits of human experience and serve to educate the general public, persons living with mental illness, and healthcare providers about the possibility that persons with primary and mood disorder-associated psychotic-spectrum disorders have had a monumental influence on civilization.”

— Murray, E. Cunningham M. Price B . The Role of Psychotic Disorders in Religious History Considered.Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2012; 24:410–426

On the origin of prophecy today

In his seventeenth century commentary on the Talmud, R. Samuel Eliezer ben R. Judah HaLevi Edels, better known as the Maharsha, suggests that there are different kinds of prophecy.

מהרש"א חידושי אגדות מסכת בבא בתרא דף יב עמוד ב 

וענין שנטלה מן הנביאים ונתנה לשוטים אין הנבואות שוות דנבואת נביאים ע"י הש"י או ע"י מלאכיו אבל נבואת השוטים ותינוקות אינו אלא ע"י שד דהכי מחלק בפרק הרואה בין החלומות שיש מהן ע"י המלאך ויש מהן ע"י שד

"Not all prophecy is the same. For the prophecy of the prophets was endowed by God, Blessed be He, or one of His angels, whereas the prophecy of the mentally ill and children is endowed by a demon..."

Which may only serve to scare the mentally ill even more. R. Yochanan's statement reminds us that the line between mental disease and religiously inspired hallucinations (or delusions) is very blurred, and that, whatever the source of their visions and hallucinations, the mentally ill deserve more than our pity or support. They deserve our respect. 

“If you hear a car backfire and you believe that it may be a pistol shot, that is an illusion. If you hear a pistol shot when there has been no sound (either of a pistol or a car backfiring), that is a hallucination. If you hear a pistol shot and believe that it is God firing a pistol at you because you [as a physician] have ordered inappropriate lab tests, that is a delusion. If [a physician] decides he is ordering too many laboratory tests in the absence of an external sensory stimulus, that is called enlightenment.”

— Joseph Sapira. The Art and Science of Bedside Diagnosis. Williams & Wilkins 1990. p518.